Preface

This book is written primarily to engineering students in the fields of basic chemistry, environmental chemistry, food production, chemical and biochemical engineering who in the beginning of their university studies receive education in inorganic chemistry and applied chemistry in general.

The aim of this book is to explain and clarify important terms and concepts which the students are supposed to have knowledge about. This book can not replace existing educational textbooks about inorganic basic chemistry and general applied chemistry, but it gives a great supplement to the education. Many smaller assignments and examples including solutions are given in the book.

The book is divided into six main sections covering the introductory parts of the general chemical education at universities and chemical engineering schools. One of the aims of this book is to lighten the shift over from grammar school/high school/gymnasium to the university.

We alone are responsible for any misprints or errors and we will be grateful to receive any critics and suggestions for improvement.

Contents

Preface

1. Atoms
1.1 Atomic nucleus, electrons and orbitals
1.1.1 Components of the atom
1.1.2 Electron movement and electromagnetic radiation
1.1.3 Bohr’s atomic model
1.1.4 Photons
1.1.5 Radioactive decay
1.1.6 Wave functions and orbitals
1.1.7 Orbital configuration
1.2 Construction of the periodic table
1.2.1 Aufbau principle
1.2.2 Electron configuration
1.2.3 Categorization of the elements
1.2.4 Periodic tendencies
1.3 Summing up on chapter 1

2. Chemical compounds
2.1 Bonds and forces
2.1.1 Bond types
2.1.2 Intermolecular forces
2.2 Covalent bonds
2.2.1 Energy considerations
2.2.2 Molecular orbital theory
2.2.3 Lewis structure
2.2.4 VSEPR theory
2.2.5 Orbital hybridization
2.3 Metallic bonds
2.3.1 Band theory
2.3.2 Lattice structures
2.4 Ionic bonds
2.4.1 Ionic character
2.4.2 Lattice structures for ionic compounds
2.4.3 Energy calculations in ionic compounds
2.5 Summing up on chapter 2

3. Reactions kenetics
3.1 The chemical reaction
3.2 Rate of reaction
3.3 Rate expressions
3.4 Chemical kinetics and catalysts
3.5 Kinetics of radioactive decay
3.5.1 Half-life
3.6 Summing up on chapter 3

4. Equlibrium
4.1 Solubility equilibrium and solubility product
4.1.1 Relative solubility
4.1.2 Ion effects on solubility
4.2 Precipitation
4.2.1 Selective precipitation
4.3 Summing up on chapter 4

5. Acids and bases
5.1 About acids and bases
5.1.1 Acid strength
5.1.2 The pH-scale
5.1.3 The autoprotolysis of water
5.2 pH calculations
5.2.1 Calculation of pH in strong acid solutions
5.2.2 Calculation of pH in weak acid solutions
5.2.3 Calculation of pH in mixtures of weak acids
5.3 Polyprotic acids
5.4 Acid properties of salts
5.4 Ion effects on pH
5.5 Buffer
5.5.1 The Buffer equation
5.5.1 Buffer capacity
5.6 Titrations and pH curves
5.6.1 Titration of polyprotic acids
5.6.2 Colour indicators for acid/base titration
5.7 Summing up on chapter 5

6. Electrochemistry
6.1 Oxidation and reduction
6.1.1 Level of oxidation
6.1.2 Methods for balancing redox reactions
6.2 Galvanic cells
6.2.2 Cell potentials
6.3 Standard reduction potentials
6.4 Concentration dependency of cell potentials
6.5 Batteries
6.6 Corrosion
6.7 Electrolysis
6.8 Summing up on chapter 6

7. Concluding remarks

List of Examples

Example 1- A: Two isotopes of uranium

Example 1- B: Oxidation states for single ions and composite ions

Example 1- C: Energy of a photon

Example 1- D: Mass and energy (Einstein equation)

Example 1- E: Emission of alpha and gamma radiation

Example 1- F: Emission of beta radiation

Example 1- G: Decay chain

Example 1- H: Quantum numbers and designations for different orbitals

Example 1- I: Filling of electrons in the 1st period

Example 1- J: Filling of electrons in the 2nd period

Example 1- K: Filling of electrons in the 3rd period

Example 1- L: Filling of electrons in the 4th period

Example 1- M: Filling of electrons in the 5th period

Example 1- N: Filling of electrons in the 6th and 7th period

Example 1- O: Oxidation state (transition metal and main group element)

Example 1- P: Atomic radius

Example 1- Q: Ionization energy

Example 1- R: Electronegativity

Example 2- A: Dipole-dipole forces among HCl molecules

Example 2- B: Hydrogen bonds between water molecules

Example 2- C: London forces between hydrogen molecules

Example 2- D: Molecular orbitals in the hydrogen molecule

Example 2- E: Molecular orbitals in a “helium molecule”

Example 2- F: Atoms in “dot notation”

Example 2- G: The ammonia molecule in Lewis structure

Example 2- H: The carbon dioxide molecule in Lewis structure

Example 2- I: The sulphur hexafluoride molecule in Lewis structure

Example 2- J: Nitrat in Lewis structure

Example 2- K: The dinitrogen oxid molecule in Lewis structure

Example 2- L: CO2 and H2O, VSEPR theory

Example 2- M: NH3 molecule, sp3-hybridization

Example 2- N: C2H4 molecule, sp2-hybridization

Example 2- O: CO2 molecule, sp-hybridization

Example 2- P: Density of tungsten (W)

Example 2- Q: Atomic radius for ruthenium (Ru)

Example 2- R: Energy calculations for lithium fluoride (LiF)

Example 3- A: Reaction equation for precipitation of BaSO4

Example 3- B: Production of ammonia

Example 3- C: Decomposition of nitrogen dioxid

Example 3- D: Order of reaction and rate expressions

Example 3- E: Energy of activation

Example 3- F: Enzymes – catalysts of nature

Example 3- G: Radon in the cellar!

Example 3- H: Carbon-14 as a method to determine age

Example 4- A: Calculation of solubility of PbSO4

Example 4- B: Relative solubility; first example

Example 4- C: Relative solubility; second example

Example 4- D: Solubility and foreign ions

Example 4- E: Equilibrium concentration after precipitation of lead nitrate (PbNO3)

Example 4- F: Selective precipitation

Example 5- A: pH calculation in a strong acid (hydrochloric acid)

Example 5- B: pH calculation in weak acid solution

Example 5- C: pH in the solution with two weak acids

Example 5- D: pH in a solution of polyprotic acid

Example 5- E: pH in a solution of aluminium chloride

Example 5- F: pH in a solution of foreign ions

Example 5- G: pH in a buffer solution

Example 5- H: Buffer capacity

Example 5- I: Titration of weak acid with strong base

Example 5- J: Titration of a divalent acid

Example 6- A: Assigning levels of oxidation

Example 6- B: The method of half-reaction in acid aqueous solution

Example 6- C: The method of half-reaction in basic aqueous solution

Example 6- D: Half-cell potentials

Example 6- E: Calculation of cell potential and spontaneity

Example 6- F: The use of the Nernst equation to determine the cell potential

Example 6- G: The use of the Nernst equation to calculate equilibrium constants

Example 6- H: Lead battery

Example 6- I: Dry cell batteries

Example 6- J: Fuel cells

Example 6- K: Aluminium oxide as protection against corrosion

Example 6- L: Aluminium oxide as protection against corrosion

Example 6- M: Electrolysis of water